The Management of Organizational Culture - 3951 Words

THE MANAGEMENT OF ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE Lesley Willcoxson Bruce Millett ABSTRACT Culture is a term that is used regularly in workplace discussions. It is taken for granted that we understand what it means. The purpose of this paper is to identify and discuss some of the significant issues relating to the management of an organisation’s culture. As organisational cultures are born within the context of broader cultural contexts such as national or ethic groupings, the paper will commence by defining ‘culture’ in the wider social context. This definition will subsequently form the basis for discussion of definitions of organisational culture and the paradigms and perspectives that underpin these. The paper will then discuss the issue of†¦show more content†¦Australian culture, for example, may thus arguably be described as more similar to that of the United States of America than to that of Malaysia. Cultures are based in history, developing over time as groups establish patterns of behaviour an d belief that seem effective in helping them to interpret and interact with the world in which they find themselves. Australian ‘mateship’ behaviour, for example, served early male white settlers in a harsh and sparsely populated world much better than the maintenance of the hierarchical class distinctions typical of the world from which they had come. From such new, adaptive patterns of behaviour arise new beliefs, such as a belief in egalitarianism. These new behaviours, values and beliefs, together with the associated rituals, myths and symbols that arise to support them, combine over time to establish and then to reinforce the core assumptions of the culture. In addition to providing implicit guidelines for behaviour and the channelling of emotion (Trice Beyer 1993), cultures serve to give people a sense of belonging through collective identity and thus break down the intrinsic isolation of the individual. It is also important to realise that culture can also defin e differences between groups. Culture identifies particular groups by their similarities as well as their differences. Although cultures are dynamic to the extent that changed circumstances can lead to the incorporation of new patterns ofShow MoreRelatedManagement and Organizational Culture in Samsung1548 Words   |  7 PagesCourse: NZDB 530 Organisation and Management Trimester 2 2010 Assessment 2: Essay on Organizational Culture SAMSUNG ELECTRONICS Submitted by: Chung Daewan(Steve) ID# 20904451 Submitted on: 5th July 2010 Submitted to: Jene Parilla TABLE OF CONTENTS â…  . Essay on Organizational Culture †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..................................................3 â… ¡. Metaphor†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.......................................................................................6 â… ¢. Appendices†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..................................Read MoreManagement and Organizational Culture in Samsung1541 Words   |  7 PagesCourse: NZDB 530 Organisation and Management Trimester 2 2010 Assessment 2: Essay on Organizational Culture SAMSUNG ELECTRONICS Submitted by: Chung Daewan(Steve) ID# 20904451 Submitted on: 5th July 2010 Submitted to: Jene Parilla TABLE OF CONTENTS â…  . Essay on Organizational Culture †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..................................................3 â… ¡. Metaphor†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.......................................................................................6 â… ¢. Appendices†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...................Read MoreOrganizational Structure, Culture, Management And The Leadership1536 Words   |  7 Pages1. Introduction The aim of the report is to observe and analyse how organisational structure, culture, management and the leadership are helping to function effectively and achieve the organisational goals. I will try to apply as many different theories as possible to support the report. 2. Background of Burberry Burberry is a British luxury fashion brand that was founded in 1896 by Thomas Burberry, after which the company was named and has lived ever since to date. It is easily recognised asRead MoreOrganizational Culture And Human Resource Management1048 Words   |  5 Pagescompanies which there is congruency between national culture and human resources practices. If the human resources management practices are not in line with the basic tenets shared by employees, it will lead to dissatisfaction, lack of commitment and discomfort among the employees (Early, 1994). Introduction Culture affects and governs all facets of life by influencing values, attitudes and behavior of a society, while organizational culture relates to the unique modes of carrying out their activitiesRead MoreOrganizational Culture Is Within The Control Of Management1730 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction Interest in the area of corporate culture is said to have originated in the 1970s as a response to the success of Japanese management and the perceived failure of traditional organizational analysis (Hofstede, Neuijen, Ohayv Sanders, 1990; Ouchi, 1985; Martin Frost, 1999). Since then, research has flourished, with particular emphasis placed on the link between culture and corporate performance (Kilmann, Saxton Serpa, 1985). Observations of the most well-known, best run companiesRead MoreOrganizational Culture, Management Philosophy And Ethics999 Words   |  4 PagesIntroduction Organizational culture, management philosophy and ethics in business each have an impact on all areas of the organization; from operations, marketing, and, accounting. No matter the size, industry or level of profitability of an organization, business ethics are one of the most important aspects of long-term success. According to Webster’s dictionary, ethics can be defined as the â€Å"rules of behavior based on ideas about what is morally good and bad† these rules influence every aspectRead MoreOrganizational Culture And Human Resource Management Essay2510 Words   |  11 Pagesdiscuss the concept of organizational culture, the internal and external factors and its relation to human resource management. The critique of how organizational culture can promote or hinder organizational processes and outcomes is discussed. The concept of organizational culture refers to the personality of an organization, and the personality is build up by group of people with differences. Each individuals of the organization plays an uniqueness roles. Organizational culture is defined as an assemblyRead MoreConsiderations for 21st Century Management and Organizational Cultures777 Words   |  3 PagesConsiderations for 21st Century Management Organizational Cultures The four management themes are intriguing and challenging to current and future managers. People, especially those in leadership positions should always be looking for way to improve. One such method as suggested by the readings includes looking to other countries for new strategies, particularly those countries that are stable and relatively progressive. Such examples would include Switzerland, Sweden, and Japan. No matter whatRead MoreNursing and The Organizational Culture of Human Resource Management1495 Words   |  6 PagesOrganizational culture can play a very important role in any corporation’s success. As we learn more about how to make a company more successful through effective management of Human Resource, we are learning of the value of people, as a whole, and how they contribute to the success or failure of an organization. That’s even more so true with in healthcare organizations. Nurses play a pivotal role in the health care profession and make up the m ajority of healthcare workers in a hospital settingRead MoreThe Impact Of Organizational Culture On Project Management Essay1649 Words   |  7 PagesOrganisational Culture on Project management Abstract Two companies do not always get the same success level of projects even if they used same project management process for similar projects. The reason which leads to this situation is related to the culture of the organisation. Organisational culture, a conceptual issue, which influence the success rate of project management during the life cycle of a project. This study finds out that organisational culture affect project management in four ways:

Diabetic Nephropathy The Major Complications Of Diabetes...

Diabetic Nephropathy Diabetic nephropathy is one of the major complications of diabetes mellitus. Current statistics suggests that diabetic nephropathy is the leading cause of chronic kidney disease in the United States as well as many other Western societies. It is also reported to be one of the most significant long-term complications in terms of morbidity and mortality for individual patients with diabetes. Diabetes is responsible for 30-40% of all end-stage renal disease (ESRD) cases in the United States. This paper is meant to elaborate on the pathophysiology, symptoms, diagnosis, prognosis, and the management of this major complication of diabetes but first, we are going to give some background on diabetes mellitus itself. Diabetes†¦show more content†¦In the event of diabetes, the body either does not make enough insulin or can not use its own insulin as well as it should. This eventually causes sugars to build up in the blood. This hyperglycemia usually leads to acute as well as chronic complications in the body. The National Diabetes Statistics Report published in 2014, states that 29.1 million people or 9.3% of the U.S. population have diabetes amongst which about 21 million cases have been diagnosed and 8.1 million cases are still undiagnosed. Approximately 1.4 million Americans are diagnosed with diabetes every year. Diabetes was found to be the 7th leading cause of death in the United States in 2010, with 69,071 death certificates listing it as the underlying cause of death, and a total of 234,051 death certificates listing diabetes as an underlying or contributing cause of death†. Diabetes also certainly poses a huge financial burden. In 2012, it accounted for $245 billion in total costs of diagnosed diabetes, $176 billion for direct medical costs, and $69 billion in reduced productivity (National Diabetes Statistics, 2014). Regardless of this astonishing statistical information, diabetes can be managed and treated by eating healthy, doing regular physical exercise, and through the use of medications which work to lower blood glucose levels. Patient education and self care healthy practices are very important aspects in diabetes management. It is also crucial to

Unconscionable Conduct Consumer Protection -Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Unconscionable Conduct Consumer Protection? Answer: Introducation Unconscionability is a term under the contract law which defines the doctrine of contract. The unconscionability terms are always applicable extremely unjust way. Under this term of contact, both the parties are belongs to the superior bargaining power which are related to the good conscience. When the parties of the agreement not agrees with the terms of unconscionability, then the contract become unenforceable. In most of the cases, the conduct in the unconscionable contract never allowed the benefits because the consideration was always found with lack of knowledge or inadequate of the enforcement (Beh 2015). It determines the unconscionability when the contract was related with bargaining power, mental capacity and age. It may also include superior knowledge, lack of choice and other accounting which can be formed due to the acts of fraud and deceit. Sometimes, due to the fact of misrepresentation it may deprive someone who belongs from valuable possession. Therefore, when one party of the contract takes advantages of another due to the unconscionable approaches, then the action will be treated as the civil action of deceit criminal or fraud (Browne and Biksacky 2013). The person who is the perpetrator has never holds the right where he or she can get benefit according to the consideration in the contract. It is applicable only when the terms are found enforceable in the contract. However, in the unconscionability, the defense can be provided to the offender when it deals with the fairness of the contract. Therefore, the court must look for the facts where the contract becomes unconscionable due to the presence of gross inequity of bargaining power (Beh 2015). In such consequences, the contract will become unreasonable favorable towards the stronger party according to the claim of unconscionable contract. When the contract was formed, the unconscionable contract must be included the bargaining power, age, and mental capacity of the parties. The misrepresentation of facts must be established while the identification of such contract. However, in this contract, the terms are cannot be changed after the formation. While the judgment, the jury members never participate in the process. The judge will provide the judgment and also identify the remedies according to the flexibility of the contract (Browne and Biksacky 2013). The Commercial Bank of Australia Ltd vs. Amadio is one of the famous cases of Australia, where the unconscionability has been introduced for the first time. In this case, an Old Italian couples son has guaranteed his parents for mortgage their property. When their son has failed in the business, the Commercial bank has claimed the property in exchange of the loan. However, the court has found in this case the contract was unconscionable. The bank manager had the knowledge about the Amadios that they are old and not have knowledge about English language. The bank also found to act fraud with them that there is no limit of liability as per the terms of guarantee. The court has been stated that the bank manager has knowledge about disabilities of the parties and formed the contract of mortgage. There are lack of advanced age, lack of fluency, lack of business acumen and the financial condition of the builders son. The facts of the unequal bargaining are mostly established in the unconscionable contract when the unreasonable facts are performed by one party to another party. In such fact, one party always aware about the concept that other party has lack of knowledge to understand the consequences of the terms of the contract. In the case of Suisse Atlantique Socit d Armement Maritime SA v NV Rotterdamsche Kolen Centrale, the court has been introduced the fact of Doctrine of Inequality of Bargaining Power. The case has been described the concept of bargaining power which mainly occurs when the party look through the agreement where he might understand some facts and some of the facts they missed. The freedom of contract defined the term of bargaining. Inequality of bargaining is another term where one party will bargain in the agreement for better alternative opportunities (Browne and Biksacky 2013). In this process, the parties who are using the alternative opportunities will have more power and other party will use the power as well at the formation of the contract. While in this contract, the bargaining power is unequal to the idea of Inequality of bargain power. In this bargaining power, the justification of the implication of power is one of the important parts which form the contract directly through law or non-enforcement of a contract by the courts. Schroeder Music Publishing Co Ltd v Macaulay is another case of unconscionable contract` in this case one of the music companies has comes under a contractual term which is related with the restraints of trade in a standard form of contract with a young songwriter. In related with this case, the court has been stated that the contract was made freely by the parties as per the equal terms or moulded under the pressure of negotiation. However, no evidence has been found where the contract was fitted with such description. Negotiation is the process where the bargaining process can be use according to the terms of the contract. The unequal bargain helps to demonstrate the unconscionability in the contract which are mostly relayed with the transactions of debts in the bank guarantees (Hedlund 2016). It is necessary to describe the facts of the contractual terms. If it has been found that the contract was formed by one party and it will unenforceable against the person. However, it is only applicable when the party is minor or the person with mental difficulties. It is used for preventing to take advantages by the aggrieved party from the innocent party due to the lack of ability. In the unonscionable contract, it has identified the terms where it defies the unfairness of the agreement. When the unfairness of the contract has been applied in the unequal bargaining power from side by side, it is necessary to understand the facts of the management. It also directly effects on the unfair terms which failed to represent the unequal bargaining power between the parties. However, it has been found that the contract has become unconscionable, the parties can avoid the contract and rework on the issues. In the unconscionable contract, it is necessary to establish the terms of illegal or frauds. The damages may not be awarded in the in such contracts for not able to establishment of the contract. In the Inequality of bargaining power, most of the case, the banks are identified as aggrieved party who get involved with such bargaining power. After the formation of the contract, the agreement was given pre-drafted by one of the strongest parties who will accept the terms. Another party will accept the terms without the opportunities or time which was changed by their own choice. In the bargaining position, one party will always accept the mentioned terms which are found useful them. In most of the cases, it will become useful for the parties who tried to execute or set the limits of the liabilities without taking care of the interest of the other side. Here, the weaker party is suffered the most at the negotiation terms (Hedlund 2016). However, banks are the found the strongest parties in the Inequality of the bargaining power. At the time of taking any property for mortgage process, the parties are provided with their exclude or limit his liabilities for not caring the interest of the other side of the interest. Now the other party when takes the advantages of the mortgage or lease property, the bank provides with loans and the authority of the banks keeps the knowledge about the parties who are entering into the contract. In the use of Standard condition and terms, it helps to established the facts where the consumers enter into the contract. Most of the business people entered into such contracts which consisted with the basis of one persons standard form of agreement or based on a standard form of document. In the process of the contractual terms, it includes the order form, price list or catalogue, confirmation of the order, put forward by one party and incorporated by reference the standard terms and conditions of the trade associations. While in the bargain power of the contract mostly presents in between two parties, the legislatures and court both have evolved in the certain rules for the protection of interest of the weaker party. However, in the absence of the specific legislation, it is the duty of the court to interfere with standard form of contracts which unequal used to provide the evidence of unequal bargaining power. The courts are found to provide reliefs in those cases where the weaker party has faced with the burdened with unfair, unjust, unconscionable, unconstitutional and oppressive obligations under a standard form of contract. It is not recognized as a form of procedural unconscionability but the most of the common forms found unconscionability employed by the courts. Court sometimes tried to identify bargaining power which is based on the evidence where the buyer is a small company or individual and seller is a large company. It can become the result of a specific monopoly. Under a contract, parties can protect them by own against enforcement of an unconscionable provision in a contract. However, it never works in; obtain damages which are subjected to the unconscionable contracts. According to the terms of the contract, the parties cannot seek advantages or resolution in relation with a unconscionable contract. Therefore, the doctrine of such contract allowed the court for deny the enforceability of the contract to develop on the terms of a contract for alleviate the unconscionable portions. Therefore, the doctrine of the contract helps the parties to form the contract fairly and freely. The opposite party in the unconscionable contract always suggests finding the contract with the term with unfair where court can change or modify the overall appropriate by courts, rework and reformation on the single terms of contract is the least disruptive method of correction (Hedlund 2016). The Financial and Consumer Rights Council (FCRC) is one of the professional associations in Victoria which works as financial counselor. It helps to provide enough support and other assistances with different agencies which assist the vulnerable Victorians experiencing financial difficulty. This organization is mainly works with the government, utilities, debt collection, banking jobs and other ways to develop the approaches of the financial difficulties for the vulnerable consumers. In most of the cases, the unfair terms always form it out and confirm that consumers who are in relation with the unfair practices have rights to enter in to the contract as per the protection by the Australian Consumer Law. The FCRC make it confirm about the benefits where it may banned from being included in the contract (Hedlund 2016). The Financial and Consumer Rights Council (FCRC) has been heighted on the different segments which are all related with the consumer protection along with the practices related to the financial concealing. They help the parties or the plaintiffs who want to start a legal proceedings against the another party or the defendants. In other way, the group also provides the information and knowledge to the consumers against those unfair contracts, which can be introduced by the parties without the use of the equal bargain (Beh 2015). In most of the cases, according to circumstances of the low-income earners, it has transferred into a hardship where the options may not able to confirm the results towards the detriment of both parties according to the dispute which are remaining unsettled. Therefore, the business law of Australia has different grounds where courts can relate to unconscionable conduct of dominant and weaker parties. it also protects the consumer rights against the seller of such productions. The advocacy process also define those several groups which are related the security of the rights of weaker party against the strong party. Reference Beh, H.G., 2015. Curing the Infirmities of the Unconscionability Doctrine.Browser Download This Paper. Brody, G. and Temple, K., 2016. Unfair but not illegal: Are Australia's consumer protection laws allowing predatory businesses to flourish?.Alternative Law Journal,41(3), p.169. Browne, M.N. and Biksacky, L., 2013. Unconscionability and the contingent assumptions of contract theory.Mich. St. L. Rev., p.211. Bryan, M., Degeling, S., Donald, S. and Vann, V., 2016.A Sourcebook on Equity and Trusts in Australia. Cambridge University Press. D'agostino, E., 2014.Contracts of adhesion between law and economics: Rethinking the unconscionability doctrine. Springer. Friedman, D., 2015. Arbitration Revisited: Preemption of California's Unconscionability Doctrine after Concepcion.Duke J. Const. L. Pub. Pol'y Sidebar,11, p.21. Hedlund, R., 2016.Conscience and Unconscionability in English Equity(Doctoral dissertation, University of York). Hudson, A., 2016. Conscience as the Organising Concept of Equity.Can. J. Comp. Contemp. L.,2, p.261. Hudson, A., 2016.Principles of Equity and Trusts. Routledge. Leeming, M., 2016. Equity and Statute: a commentary. Marrow, P.B. and Penn, C.E., 2014. Policing Unfair Arbitration Clauses. Murray Jr, J.E., 2014. The Judicial Vision of Contract: The Constructed Circle of Assent and Unconscionability.Duq. L. Rev.,52, p.263. Nehf, J.P., 2017. The Impact of Mandatory Arbitration on the Common Law Regulation of Standard Terms in Consumer Contracts. Rajapakse, P. and Gardner, J., 2014. The Unconscionable Conduct and Consumer Protection in Subprime Lending in Australia.Banking Finance Law Review,29(3), p.485. Schroeder Music Publishing Co Ltd v Macaulay [1974] 1 WLR 1308 Serpell, A., 2016. Financial products and services: Consumer rights and remedies.Precedent (Sydney, NSW), (134), p.4. Sherborne, A.K.E., 2017. Restitution in the conflict of laws: characterization and choice-of-law in Australia.Journal of Private business-law,13(1), pp.1-34. Suisse Atlantique Socit d Armement Maritime SA v NV Rotterdamsche Kolen Centrale [1967] 1 AC 36 Swain, W., 2014. Unjust enrichment and the role of legal history in England and Australia. Webb, E., 2016. Statutory Unconscionability in Australia. Young, P., 2016. Unconscionability and promissory estoppel.AUSTRALIAN LAW JOURNAL,90(12), pp.878-888.

Behavioral Relationships Their Time Course -Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Behavioral Relationships Their Time Course? Answer: Introduction There are two most important capabilities of the brain, memory and learning. Learning is the biological process of knowledge acquisition while the memory is the knowledge retention and reconstruction process that takes place over time (Kandel, Dudai, Mayford, 2014). As such, the brain determines who we are regarding what we learn and what we can remember or forget. There are some ways to investigate the exact part of the brain where accounting and perpetual processes take place. Various tests and tasks can be designed to determine the motor, sensory and cognitive capacities of the test subject. Results of the trials and assignments typically correlate with physiological functions, and the results ascribed to particular parts of the brain. This paper reviews brain lesion examinations underlying the making, storage, retrieval and loss of memories. Case Study Review The cadaver approach to the study of the brain is safer; but, the minds are inactive and therefore disadvantageous. However, living brains can be studied under strict regulations. Living brains of men can be damaged, for example, because of falls, stroke, tumours, gunshots or accidents. The brain damages are biologically referred to as lesions. In experiments, lesions may be intentionally induced through surgical procedures like during the removal of brain tumours, or reduction of epileptic effects in split-brain patients. Furthermore, psychologists may deliberately produce a lesion in an animal to understand cognitive behaviours. By doing so, the research psychologists hope to draw inferences concerning the possible functions of the human brain in relation to the effects observed in animals. Example One In example one, a small electrode is inserted into B, and then an electrical current is passed over the electrode to lesion B. This method is known as the invasive electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB). ESB is an effective way of demonstrating functional neural connections between brain regions. In case an ESB of one part evokes an electrical response in another part then axons must be involved. However, in the case study in example 1, the ESB conducted in region B does not evoke an electrical response in the other regions. The cases study explains the reason behind the failure of the rat to recognise the smell of cheese as possible damage to the axons connecting region B to other regions during the ESB. This review agrees with that ESB may affect more extensive areas than intended. The problem of invasive stimulation is that stimulations are delivered at varying intensities depending on the level of the spontaneous activity taking place in the brain and determining the particular structures affected by the stimulus. This paper, therefore, recommends the use of an alternative approach known as magnetic stimulation or non-invasive stimulation to determine whether other regions are affected by a process known as equipotentiality. Under magnetic stimulation, the procedure stimulates the neurons connecting the different regions A, B, and C. The procedure involves financialg magnetic fields instead of electrical current. A coil is placed against the scalp, at the surface, and generating a focused magnetic field. The field excites the underlying regions of the brain and induces electrical discharges from the tissue involved (Sliwinska, Vitello, Devlin, 2014). This way, the experiment can determine the functional activity of the brain without surgery that could have l esioned the fibres of passage and caused the rat to recognise the smell of cheese. Still, noninvasive stimulation is limited in the sense that only parts of the brain that are near the surface are usually stimulated. Example Two In the case study, example two, a cytotoxic chemical is injected into the brain using a small needle to destroy region B. The results indicate that the rat shows no fear responses when exposed to a predator showing leading to the conclusion that b is responsible for stimulating fear. However, the cytotoxin does not only lesion B but also region A. This extensive damage could have interfered with equipotentiality of the brain since A could have the potential to respond to fear when B is impaired. Consequently, a more precise experiment should be conducted to establish if B is actually responsible for the fear response. This review recommends using a smaller needle that is more precise and is capable of stimulating a single nerve cell with chemical agents. The smaller needle to be used is referred to as a microiontophoretic (Windhorst Johansson, 2012).In this alternative method, a cluster of micropipettes is utilised. One other pipette is used as a microelectrode to record electrical activities of the targeted region. The different pipettes are filled with particular solutions of the chemicals being tested. The solutions are either charged electrically or ionised. A small electrical current is then passed through the pipette containing the ionised solution allowing the molecules of the substance to be released from the pipette to the target region. According to Windhorst and Johansson (2012, p. 194), microiontophoresis is the most precise form of chemical stimulation of the brain that exists currently. Example Three In example three of the case study, a human brain is used. Region A of the brain is said to be responsible for working memory. To test the hypothesis, the Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) method is used to knock out region A to damage it and prevent it from functioning normally. The research finds that application of TMS affects the working memory and concludes that A is critical I normal functioning of the working memory. However, there is a possibility that the TMS could have affected the axons connecting A to B where synapses are made. Therefore, an alternative explanation for the phenomenon is necessary. According to Sliwinska et al. (2014), TMS is a brain imaging technique in which a living persons brain is exposed to magnetic impulses with the aim to temporarily and safely deactivate a small region of the brain. The performance of the participant to a given task is then assessed during the stimulation. If the ability of the participant to perform the assigned function is affected by the stimulation, then the research can conclude that the given brain region is vital for the particular task. Still, TMS is limited in the sense that concurrent somatosensory stimulation may be experienced, disrupting the performance. Moreover, there are some free parameters requiring optimisation for the experiment to be practical. Nonetheless, Sliwinska et al. (2014) recommend using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) machine to determine the specific region of the brain to be tested before applying the TMS. Failure to use the fMRI could have led the researcher to induce TMS to the other areas of the brain adjacent to the area under study. Integrating the two mechanisms improves the spatial-temporal precision of TMS disruption effect as an essential non-invasive tool of cognitive neuroscience. The first step of preparing a TMS assessment is to identify a stimulation procedure and selecting a method of localisation. Parameters used in stimulation range from frequency, intensity and time duration; but, they are regulated by international safety requirements. A TMS experiment will require a suitable localisation method to accurately position and orient the coil over the site of stimulation. Standard base coordinators are best suited for localisation, but individual customisation is necessary for each participant. Customization can be achieved through several options including targeted stimulation based on the participants anatomy, localisation through fMRI or TMS functional localisation. The procedure presented here has been approved for non-invasive brain stimulation of healthy human volunteers. To increase the effectiveness of the protocol, the experiment can be split into separate sessions each testing a different stimulation site on a different day; although, localisation and site testing must be done on the same meeting. This way accuracy is increased, and experimental variance is decreased. However, for safety reasons, the number of sessions per participant should not be limited to a manageable number that guarantees safety per session. Conclusion The biological process of learning and memory is an essential aspect of neuroscience. Simple experiments to control behaviour using molecular and cellular biological tools have shown that specific neurons and molecular pathways are influenced by learning. Synaptic changes introduced by patterns of electrical or chemical modulators can alter the process of information and control individual behaviours. Both memory and synapse have different phases that are temporary in natures and can be influenced to change actions. These induced influences can either be invasive or non-invasive; but, they have their limitation and should be practised safely. This paper has successfully uncovered the constraints and complexities of some of the protocols in neuroscience experiments. References Kandel, E. R., Dudai, Y., Mayford, management. R. (2014). The Molecular and Systems Biology of Memory. Cell, 157(1), 163186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2014.03.001 Sliwinska, M. W., Vitello, S., Devlin, J. T. (2014). Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation for Investigating Causal Brain-behavioral Relationships and their Time Course. Journal of Visualized Experiments?: JoVE, (89). https://doi.org/10.3791/51735 Windhorst, U., Johansson, H. (2012). Modern Techniques in Neuroscience Research. Springer Science Business Media.

Extract from ‘The Boat’ †Alistair MacLeod Essay Example

Extract from ‘The Boat’ – Alistair MacLeod Paper When first looking at these two texts, the texts seem to be totally different from each other. But when you take a closer look, you find many similarities. Text 1 is a poem from Robert Hayden called ‘Those Winter Days’, written in 1966. Text 2 is an extract from the short story ‘The Boat’ by Alistair MacLeod, published in 1976. Hayden and MacLeod want to teach the reader the lesson to love their father before it’s too late, like it was in the poem of Hayden. They both want to tell a story and entertain the audience. The first similarity is the theme. The theme of both texts is the love for a father. Both fathers are hard-working men who are not thanked for the work they do. The children of the fathers start to realize this and start to feel love for their fathers and appreciate them. They realize that their fathers don’t show their love in words or in a physical way, but in an indirect way; with actions. We will write a custom essay sample on Extract from ‘The Boat’ – Alistair MacLeod specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Extract from ‘The Boat’ – Alistair MacLeod specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Extract from ‘The Boat’ – Alistair MacLeod specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer In the first text, the child looks back on life and realized warming the house every Sunday was his father’s way to show his love. You can see this by different element. For example by the sentences ‘no one ever thanked him’ (line 5) and ‘what did I know of love’s austere and lonely offices’ (line 15). The last two lines also make clear that the child finds it frustrating that he didn’t realize this love in time. In the second text, the child realizes just in time that he has to love his father. The father gave up his dream to go to university and is hurt by the mother all the time because he was a failure as a husband. You can see this by the most important sentence in the text; ‘And then there came into my heart a very great love for my father and I thought it was very much braver to spend a life doing what you really do not want rather than selfishly following forever your own dreams and inclinations’. In both texts the speakers of the stories are children who tel about how their view on their father changed. You can see it is them telling about their own father by the words ‘I’ and ‘my father’. Another similarity is that both texts have a loving, but regretful tone. This is suggested by the sentence ‘cracked hands that ached’ in text 1 and by the actions of the father in text 2, such as ‘he burned and reburned over and over again’. This helps the reader to understand the regret of the author. Now you see that two totally different texts, can have many similarities. The most important similarity is the theme and the tone. This makes you understand both texts more than you would when you would be looking at them separately.

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buy custom Asthma essay This paper will focus on the difference between two bronchodilators, Albuterol versus levalbuterol in Asthma. This paper have discussed the various studies that have been carried out by different researcher in order to find the difference between the two bronchodilators. According to these studies, Levalbuterol seems to progress pulmonary task to a faintly better degree and last slightly longer than racemic Albuterol for the equal dose of R-Albuterol. The development in pulmonary role is related to 2.5 mg of racemic Albuterol and 0.625 mg of Levalbuterol with reduced toxicity with the second. Albuterol general toxicity follows the total amount of R-Albuterol there in a particular preparation. To add to this, there seems to be a better overall expenditure savings with Levalbuterol in comparison to racemic Albuterol. The expenditure savings appears to be connected to a decrease in duration of hospital stay and a decrease in the entire nebulization therapy when Levalbuterol is applied i n relation to racemic Albuterol. The etiologic causes in these variations are vague, but might be linked to the S-Albuterol available in one preparation than in the other. According to studies, it is apparent that both albuterol and Levalbuterol are effective and safe, whilst employed in constant form in the treatment of asthma. Nevertheless, studies have revealed that albuterol might be superior compared to Levalbuterol. For decades, inhaled -agonists, including racemic Albuterol have been evidenced to be the basis of therapy of asthma exacerbation. Albuterol encompasses the same amount of contents of two enantiomers- (S)-Albuterol and (R)-Albuterol (Volcheck et al., 2005; Ralston et al., 2005). Some clinicians perceived that (R)-isomer was to blame for the bronchodilatory impacts of racemic Albuterol in addition to other side impacts including vomiting, tachycardia and tremor. The (S)-isomer was deemed of being biologically dormant. Studies carried out contemporarily revealed that in the racemic mixture, the S-enantiomer might amplify airway hyperresponsiveness and, activate eosinophils, impacts that might turn out being harmful to asthmatics (Volcheck et al., 2005). Presently, A B-agonist that comprise of levalbuterol is commercially available. In the past ten years, various studies have been conducted to compare the efficiency of various doses of racemic Albuterol with Levalbuterol the treatment o f asthma exacerbations frequently with conflicting outcomes (Ralston et al., 2005). The efficacy and safety of Levalbuterol in the treatment of asthma has been established very well. It has been shown that it is frequently advantageous to make use of continuous or larger treatments which contains -agonists for controlling considerable asthma exacerbations efficiently ad more quickly in emergency rooms (Carl et al., 2003). According to Carl et al (2003), studies have also been carried out to compare racemic Albuterol with chronic-dose nebulized Levalbuterol in the inpatient situation. This research paper will focus on Albuterol versus Levalbuterol in Asthma. Description of Asthma Asthma is the general chronic disease that affects the airways, which have the role of carrying air in and from the lungs (Mason et al., 2005). The disease is characterized by recurring and variable symptoms including coughing, wheezing, breath shortness and chest tightness. The disease is classified as non-atopic or atopic; or according to (FEV1). Asthma is believed to be caused by a mixture of environmental and generic factors (Mason et al., 2005). The symptoms can be avoided by preventing triggers and they can also be treated using various medications. Pharmacodynamics/Pharmacokinetics There are two medications that are used to treat asthma: long-term control applied to prevent supplementary exacerbation, and quick-relief that is applied to treat the symptoms of acute. The first line for treating the symptoms of asthma is the short acting beta2 adrenoceptor agonists (SABA), likes albuterol and levalbuterol. In case of severe symptoms, which cannot be controlled by SABA, anticholinergic like ipratropium bromide can be applied in order to provide an extra value. For the long-term control, glucocortcoids treatments are the effective ones in asthma. Long acting beta-adrenoceptor agonists (LABA) can also be applied, as they can work for about 12 hours effectively. The LABA is only used together with a steroid as a result of overwhelmed jeopardy of the stern symptoms. There are other alternative to gasped glucocorticoids, which are not very much preferred, such as mast cell stabilizers (i.e cromolyn sodium) and leukotriene (i.e zafirlukast). Albuterol is normally used by the inhaled path for exact upshot on bronchial downy muscle. This is attained through a neubulizer and metered dose inhaler among other delivery devise. Levalbuterol relaxes the fine muscles of the entire airways, starting from the trachea up to the terminal bronchioles. Levalbuterol works like a pratical antagonist, which causes a relaxation in the airway despite the involvement of the spasmogen, thus shielding the challenges of bronchoconstrictor. The side effect of Albuterol and Levalbuterol is that they can cause cardiovascular in some patients, as measured by blood pressure, pulse rate, symptoms and electrocardiographic. The physical structure and actual chemical is the only difference between the Albuterol from Levalbuterol (Gumbhir-Shah et al, 1998). Research According to studies, Levalbuterol development is based on its advantages over the racemic Albuterol. They include; lesser episodes of the ephemeral tachycardia, a higher efficacy as well as a better tolerability (Hulisz, 2010). Schreck and Babin (2005) designate the patients who benefit most from the Levalbuterol treatment. In the pediatric and adult asthmatic patients, laboratory test have revealed that there is a lower average heart rate in the patients using Levalbuterol as compared to those using Albuterol. It is apparent that the degree of the difference is diffident (Ralston et al., 2005). Its use could be of paramount to patients having a history of structural heart disease, arrhythmias, or cardiac conditions such as the decompensated heart failure, which could get worse with a tachycardia episode (Hulisz, 2010). According to some scholars, there is no notable difference in the average heart rate if both the Albuterol and Levalbuterol medication are compared head to head (Hulisz, 2010). Due to the fact that severe impacts of high heart rate are a common phenomenon to all the equimolar doses and beta agonists of the racemic Albuterol and Levalbuterol are projected to lead to the same extent of tachycardia (Schreck and Babin, 2005). According to Schreck and Babin (2005) hether levalbuterol is tolerated well than albuterol is somewhat controversial. It is evident that chronic dose of racemic Albuterol have a number of adverse effects which include tachyphylaxis, hypokalemia, and high mortality rate. The S- Albuterol does not have bronchodilator activity. Its metabolism process is 10 times slower as compared to that of Levalbuterol (Hulisz, 2010). Researchers have theorized those negative effects as proinflammatory effects and the worsening airway reactivity. It leads to preferential accumulation of the (S)-isomer over (R)-albuterol in the lung, potentially resulting in paradoxical bronchospasm (Hulisz, 2010). A group of researchers (Carl et al., 2003) performed a comparison of the impacts of nebulized Levalbuterol with those of racemic Albuterol in 627 adults who were suffering from chronic asthma. Randomly, the patients were assigned to receive Albuterol and Levalbuterol 2.5mg and 1.25mg respectively every 20 min upon emergency admission, and then, 40 min for at least 3 additional doses, and then, as frequently as clinically required for twenty-four hours. All patients were also given prednisone 40mg (Carl et al., 2003). Levalbuterol heightened forced expiratory volume by about 40 percent as compared the racemic Albuterol. This resulted to a 40% reduction necessary hospitalization as compared to the Albuterol. The benefits of the Levalbuterol were apparent particularly to the patients with chronic asthma and had high levels of S- Albuterol that is higher than 1095mg/ml (Carl et al., 2003). As revealed by studies, increased circulating levels of the S- Albuterol are perceived to be a cons equence of an overdose of racemic Albuterol. The number of asthma relapses that occurred 30 days after acute exacerbation did not differ between the 2 groups (Hulisz, 2010). Apparently, the numbers of nebulizations required with Levalbuterol were lesser (Hulisz, 2010). There was no need to increase the for rescue aerosols during the 14 days of hospitalization. Another study carried out by Ralston et al (2005 on the hospitalized asthmatic patients, similar conclusions were reached. It is quite evident that the Levalbuterol benefits over Albuterol benefits were more on the moderate to severe asthmatic patients and in particular, those who had taken Albuterol in excess (Volcheck et al., 2005). Comparing Albuterol and Levalbuterol, it is vital to consider their costs. Before the year 2009, generic formulations of Albuterol metered-dose inhaler (MDI) was extensively available and in fact was much cheaper compared to branded Albuterol such as Ventolin, Proventi, and Levalbuterol (Hulisz, 2010). Most metered-dose inhaler formulations consisted of chlorofluorocarbons and in addition, they are not currently available for commercial use as the Food and Drug Administration prohibited them as a result of environmental reasons. Generic Albuterol MDI is not presently available in the market. On the other hand, Levalbuterol nebulization is significantly more expensive compared to Albuterol nebulization (Volcheck et al., 2005; Schreck and Babin, 2005). As a result of the study limitations and the increased costs of Levalbuterol, for instance, inadequate power and small sample size, some individuals have wind up that the employment of Levalbuterol instead of Albuterol is not greatly backed by the literature(Volcheck et al., 2005). Some people argue that Levalbuterol may be used in place of racemic Albuterol in various circumstances including the following: Patients who habitually experience troublesome tachycardia with Albuterol and do not like making use of it. Patients suffering from COPD or asthma among other simultaneous cardiac disease, and in particular if such conditions could possibly become worse with tachycardia, for instance, decompensated heart failure, inadequately controlled cardiac arrhythmias, and valvular heart disease. Patients who have asthma that is more critical and who require recurrent doses of a beta-2 agonist in spite of suitable employment of controller therapies (Hulisz, 2010). In comparing the two kinds of asthma treatments, which include the Albuterol and the Levalbuterol, a study was performed on 362 asthmatics of 12 years and above. At random, the subjects received the nebulized treatment at least three times per day. The dosage was as follows; Levalbuterol 0.625 mg, Levalbuterol 1.25 mg, 1.25 mg of racemic Albuterol, 2.5 mg of racemic Albuterol, or placebo(Gumbhir-Shah et al,1998). Serial pulmonary function testing with spirometry was performed after two and four weeks respectively (Gumbhir-Shah et al, 1998). The main change in the FEV1 was remarkably higher than that of placebo for the initial dose given to all the treated groups. The average peak change in FEV1 at baseline was as follows 0.92 and 0.82L, respectively; p=0.03 (Van Essen-Zandvliet and Hughes, 1992). This was a change noticed not after the four weeks and it was evidently found to be higher in the combined group of Levalbuterol as compared to the combined group of racemic Albuterol. In order to establish the result of chronic dosing on the functioning of the lungs, the average prior dose FEV1 at the fourth week in a comparison made at the baseline for all patients and for the subset of patients who did not receive inhaled corticosteroids was examined (Van Essen-Zandvliet and Hughes, 1992). There was a 0.1-liter improvement (about 6%) in predose FEV1 in the subjects receiving Levalbuterol and those on placebo and none in subjects on racemic Albuterol (Van Essen-Zandvliet and Hughes, 1992). In the case of patients who are not on inhaled corticosteroids, there was a difference of a 0.13 and 0.31 which is equivalent to 7 and 15% respectively dissimilarity between pre-dose FEV1 in subjects getting 0.625 mg and 1.25 mg of Levalbuterol when related with the ones getting 1.25 and 2.5 mg of racemic Albuterol, correspondingly. As noted the best development was in the 1.25 mg Levalbuterol section of the study. The later findings suggest in exact that constant dosing with racemic Albuterol may in real sense slow down functions of the lung as the 4-week pulmonary function values were a bit lower than bottom line in the racemic Albuterol group Side effects comprised of a raise in heart rate following dosing which was considerably more for racemic Albuterol 2.5 mg in comparison to Levalbuterol 0.625 mg at 4 weeks regardless of related improvements in the functions of the pulmonary (Gumbhir-Shah et al, 1998). The rescue Albuterol cure cutback was also relatively lower simply in the Levalbuterol 1.25 mg faction (Van Essen-Zandvliet and Hughes, 1992). There is a development in the function of the lung following dosing with Levalbuterol 1.25 mg Levalbuterol 0.625 mg = racemic Albuterol 2.5 mgracemic Albuterol 1.25 mg. Additionally, rescue Albuterol prescriptiion application was slighter with the Levalbuterol 1.25 mg organization and there is a proposal of a decrease in the function of the lung with constant dosing occurring with racemic Albuterol (in relation to placebo). A less double blind single dose, dose- range research studied asthmatics in 20 cases in a five-way intersect studying at effectiveness of three doses of Levalbuterol(0.31, 0.63 and 1.25mg), placebo and racemic Albuterol at 2.5 mg nebulization (Keir et al, 2002). The major result variables were: 1) the general adjustment in FEV1 from pre-dose to 6 hours post-dose, 2) the point to commencement of bronchodilation distinct as point from dosing waiting at least a 15% progress in FEV1 was noted, 3) the period of outcome, or the period the FEV1 was maintained over bottom line(Gumbhir-Shah et al, 1998). All the dynamic cure groups registered an improvement in FEV1 of 28-32% (more than 15%) in 15 minutes of treatment in comparison with placebo. The development in FEV1 over 15% was maintained for like 4 hours in the Levalbuterol 0.63 and 1.25 mg groups and in the racemic Albuterol group. The highest period of outcome for upholding an FEV1 over 15% of predose was with Levalbuterol 1.25 mg (mean time of 275 minutes), then Levalbuterol 0.63 mg (mean time 237 minutes) and racemic Albuterol 2.5 mg(mean time 221 minutes). Another dose ranging research involving 20 cases of asthma in a random, double-blind, 4-way intersect research made of 4 learning days each one divided by at lest 3 day failure period was carried out and Glaxo, a maker of racemic Albuterol, supported it (Keir et al, 2002). On a particular day these doses were given in an increasing manner at 25 minute intervals: 6.25, 12.5, 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, and 1,600ug for R-or S-Albuterol and 12.5, 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1,600, and 3,200ug for (R, S)-Albuterol together with placebo doses single day in the 4 days. The findings of the research evidently demonstrate a dose-related progress in FEV1 and consequences reliant on the quantity of (R)-Albuterol substance only, if or not (R)-Albuterol or (R, S)-Albuterol was utilized. None of the results were noted with (S)-Albuterol or placebo. A study based on pediatric researched on racemic Albuterol and Levalbuterol in 28 cases of children with asthma aged between 6 to 11 (Keir et al, 2002). The research was a random double blind intersect study looking at single doses in groups of seven: 0.16, 0.31, 0.63, and 1.25 mg of Levalbuterol, placebo, and 1.25 and 2.5 mg of racemic Albuterol. Visits were programmed from 2 to 8 days spaced out with sequential dimensions of spirometry at bottom line to 6 hours post inhaling dose. Racemic Albuterol was withdrawn for not less than 8 hours to the research. Clear results in the research were bigger progress in the function of the lung with 1.25 mg of Levalbuterol in comparison to 2.5 mg of racemic, Albuterol and what seemed to be a simple dose reaction connection between serum treatment levels of Levalbuterol and function of the lung, a thing that has not been there previously when using Albuterol. Effects of the heart rate depended on the dose of Levalbuterol administered (Gumbhir-Shah et al, 1998). A great study based on pediatrics assessed constant dosing with Levalbuterol and racemic Albuterol in asthmatics cases of 338 pediatrics, aged between 4 and 11 years (Keir et al, 2002). Qualified cases were administered nebulization for three times a day treatment for twenty-one days for one of the 5 treatments: Levalbuterol 0.31 or 0.63 mg, placebo, or racemic Albuterol at 1.25 or 2.5 mg. The trial was a random, double blind. The major endpoint was FEV1 climax percent modification on the 21st day past treatment in comparison to bottom line prior to cure on the zero day. All the dynamic treatments became better considerably in comparison to placebo on the 21st day similar to the major endpoint. Levalbuterol at doses of 0.31 and 0.63 mg seemed to be alike in result to racemic Albuterol at 1.25 and 2.5 mg with related or fewer consequences. It was suggested that asthmatic children aged 4 to 11 were supposed to start with a dose of Levalbuterol of 0.31 mg once administered for soft to temperate constant asthma (Gumbhir-Shah et al, 1998). An extremely fascinating demonstration chart evaluation research undertaken, made use of a hospitals changeover strategy in the application of Albuterol (Gumbhir-Shah et al, 1998)). The research looked at Albuterol application in the two 6-month periods July 1 to December 31, 1998 and July 1 to December 31, 1999. The principal proven endpoint of the research was the entire amount of nebulizer treatments essential of patients admitted in hospitals with COPD or asthma in those two point periods. In the primary time stage, only racemic Albuterol was applied for nebulization at 2.5 mg every 4 hours as required medically. In the other time stage, the hospital switched over to Levalbuterol nebulization of 1.25 mg every 8 hours as required medically. Patients treated using Levalbuterol needed considerably less 2-agonist and ipratropium bromide treatments in hospitalized sick ones in relation to racemic Albuterol (Gumbhir-Shah et al, 1998)). It translated to an average entire price of nebulizer therapy that was considerably bigger in patients hospitalized with COPD and asthma in racemic Albuterol patients treated in comparison to Levalbuterol administered patients. After calculating for analysis, bottom-line FEV1, and ipratropium application, Levalbuterol was related with a lessened span of stay in the hospital, overall cost reserves and a reduction in the possibility of readmission in hospitals. In general, Levalbuterol seems to progress pulmonary task to a faintly better degree and last slightly longer than racemic Albuterol for the equal dose of R-Albuterol. The development in pulmonary role is related to 2.5 mg of racemic Albuterol and 0.625 mg of Levalbuterol with reduced toxicity with the second. Albuterol general toxicity follows the total amount of R-Albuterol there in a particular preparation. To add to this, there seems to be a better overall expenditure savings with Levalbuterol in comparison to racemic Albuterol. The expenditure savings appears to be connected to a decrease in duration of hospital stay and a decrease in the entire nebulization therapy when Levalbuterol is applied in relation to racemic Albuterol. The etiologic causes in these variations are vague but might be linked to the S-Albuterol available in one preparation than in the other. According to studies, it is apparent that both albuterol and Levalbuterol are effective and safe whilst employed in c onstant form in the treatment of asthma (Schreck and Babin, 2005). Nevertheless, studies have revealed that albuterol might be superior compared to Levalbuterol. Buy custom Asthma essay

Reading response Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 35

Reading response - Essay Example Speaking of ideological structure, she mainly focuses on feminism. In that direction, she uses the metaphor of a cyborg to urge women including feminists to transcend beyond the limitations and also as the main example to explain the power of the cyborgs. In that direction, A Cyborg Manifesto can be considered as a socialist-feminist analysis of womens condition in the contemporary and advanced technological world. At the outset itself, Haraway criticizes the established notions of feminism, particularly how feminist movements and feminists focuses mainly on identity politics. So, as above-mentioned, she suggests the feminists to overcome the limitations brought on by traditional gender roles, inflexible feminism, and identity politics. Instead, she proposes an acceptable model of cyborg or cybernetic woman, in which machine and woman combine. Under this techno-social assemblage or combination, women can transcend the polarizing binary concepts of gender. Instead of discussing it as a conceptual model, Haraway provides real-life aspects to show how this combination or cyborg is a possibility. For example, she talks about how certain technologies such as virtual avatars, sex-change medical procedures, and others can blur the tradition al markers that are used to determine gender. So, when these traditional markers of gender, particularly that of women, collapse and new fusion forms of sexuality emerges, then the above-mentioned cyborgs are a possibility. In a way, Haraway seems to have given a technological and political solution for a seemingly difficult socio-feminist issue. â€Å"We are all chimeras, theorized and fabricated hybrids of machine and organism; in short, we are cyborgs† (Haraway 291). Apart from her main focus on the women issues, Haraway also criticizes Oedipal narratives and Christian origin myths, particularly regarding the Genesis. Taking a critical stance regarding Genesis and Garden of Eden, Haraway states, â€Å"The cyborg

Individual Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words - 2

Individual Project - Essay Example The Five Cultural Dimensions Model is the brainchild of Geert Hofstede, a Dutch academic. This model shows five dimensions which define work-related values that are also related to national culture. These five dimensions (Hofstede, 2001) are discussed below. This dimension deals with the degree to which power is equally distributed in a society and the extent to which the said society accepts the distribution. A culture that is high power distance oriented has a preference for strong leadership styles, hierarchical bureaucracies. People in this kind of culture hold very high regard for authority. On the other hand, people in low power distance cultures favour autonomy and personal responsibility. This dimension addresses the extent to which people require clear structures and set boundaries. In high uncertainty cultures, individuals have a better mechanism for coping with risk and innovation. A low uncertainty culture puts a lot of emphasis on greater job security and standardisation. This is the measure to which people hold their own self-interest as opposed to the interests of a group. In a collective oriented culture, the group’s needs are deemed to be more important than personal needs and the government plays a big role in markets. On the other hand, an individualistic culture values and encourages free will. This dimension is concerned with the degree of the goal orientation of a society. A masculine society values status that is derived from position and wages while a feminine culture values quality of life and human relationships. This dimension looks at the extent to which a society values respect for tradition and long term commitments. Long term-oriented cultures greatly value thrift, long term planning and industriousness. Short-term oriented cultures are more concerned with living for the moment and

Globalization and Volkswagen Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Globalization and Volkswagen - Essay Example Volkswagen was incorporated in the year 1937. Volkswagen group is regarded as one the globe’s foremost automobile manufactures with its headquarters situated in Wolfsburg at Germany.Volkswagen was incorporated in the year 1937. Volkswagen group is regarded as one the globe’s foremost automobile manufactures with its headquarters situated in Wolfsburg at Germany. By globalising its business activities, Volkswagen has not only spread its activities in all the five continents of the globe but also able to transfer its technology to these markets, has created local employment and by adding local contents in its products it has opened the doors for local businessmen and has offered jobs to local people, it has helped to nourish local industries in foreign markets and has achieved cost savings about 15 to 25% due to local contents. This research essay is going to analyse how Volkswagen has benefitted from the process of globalisation. Volkswagen and Globalisation Globalizatio n can be referred as an active method of liberlisation, integration of market across the extensive array of markets internationally from goods to labor and from capital to services and technology. Globalisation is footed on the principle of freedom: the freedom to have commerce with the rest of the globe and capitalise on each nation’s relative gains; the freedom to invest where returns on capital are deemed to be highest within a tolerable magnitude of risk and the freedom to establish business of country’s of one’s choice... MNCs hold strong places in all three channels of globalisation and by clarity, they vouch for all foreign direct investment ( FDI), they are very active in trade , with thirty percent of global trade taking place within the MNCs and not between the MNCs and they transfer the knowledge and the bulk of technology across borders through intrafirm business transactions , create employment in host countries , responsible for rapid growth of GDP in the host countries and can be said to be responsible for increasing the standard of living in the countries, they conduct the business. (Ervin & Smith, 2008, p.24). Thus, due to the poignant position of MNCs, globalisation can be referred as the business decisions made by the MNCs as regards to their international business activities under transforming scenarios of international competition. (Kleinert, 2004, p.3). Globalisation also refers to the liberalisation of financial flow. Financial liberalisation eventually increases economic growth, eff iciency and development by infusing new technical know and foreign investment. Economic liberalisation connotes introduction of policies like removal of credit controls, deregulation of interest rates, privatisation of banks controlled by government, elimination of credit controls, permitting foreign financial institutions in the domestic financial markets and relaxation of the bar on the entry of private sectors. In short, it can be said that liberalisation means removal all barriers from the inflow of capital outside the frontiers of a nation. (Ariccia, 2008, p.3). It is to be noted that one cannot expect that mere economic liberalisation cannot achieve inflow of capital as only about 14 nations could attract in excess of eighty-five percent of

Adaptive theory and the restorative theory of sleep

Adaptive theory and the restorative theory of sleep Sleep is known as the circadian rhythms its mean sleep-wake cycle. One cycle is one day and controlled by the hypothalamus. Sleep is very important to each person. There are 2 theories about sleep which is the adaptive theory and the restorative theory. The adaptive theory of sleep explaining about when we need sleep otherwise sleep at night to keep out of danger and converse the energy. The restorative theory explaining about why we need sleep otherwise sleep can growth and repair occurs in the deep sleep stage. In spite of sleep may give people advantages, but some people might get disadvantages of it. Sleep might offer disorders to other people. There are common disorders that other people should know such as insomnia, sleep walking, sleep apnea, narcolepsy, night terrors, enuresis, circadian rhythms disorder, restless leg syndrome, nocturnal leg cramps. Insomnia is when someone has inability to get asleep for 4 month to 6 month, or difficulty to feel sleepy. Sleep walking is more common in childhood and more boys than girls. Night terrors is state of panic while sleeping and people who has night terrors syndrome will not remember what was happened once woken up. Sleep apnea is when people stop breathing for nearly half a minute while sleeping. Enuresis is urinating while asleep in bed. Restless leg syndrome is uncomfortable sensations in legs causing loss of sleep and movement. Nocturnal leg cramps is painful cramps in foot muscles. Circadian rhythms disorders is instability of the sleep- wake cycle such as jet lag and shift work. And narcolepsy is a sleep seizure and occurs without warning. The aim for this assignment is to know further information only about narcolepsy disorder, what causes of narcolepsy, what are the symptoms of narcolepsy, how is narcolepsy diagnosed and how is narcolepsy treated. Further more about definition of narcolepsy is a chronic sleep disorder characterized by overwhelming daytime tiredness and sudden attacks of sleep and it is a chronic disease of the central nervous system. Narcoleptic can occur at many times during a day. People may involuntarily fall asleep while at school, when having conversation, when eating, play games or the most dangerously is while driving and those are uncontrollable. Usually narcolepsy will take asleep just for a minute but in rare cases people may take asleep for an hour or may be longer. Narcolepsy generally manifest during early adulthood from 10-20 years old or late adolescence. Narcolepsy appears to occur more often men then women. The commonness of narcolepsy is related to that multiple sclerosis and parkinsons disease. In the United States, The National Institute of Neurological and Stroke estimate narcolepsy affect one in every 2000 people.However, in some countries, the commonness of narcolepsy is much lower (one per 500.000) while in other countries, it is much higher (one per 600). The American Sleep Association estimates that approximately 125.000 to 200.000 Americans suffer from narcolepsy, but only fewer than 50.000 are properly diagnosed. The cause of narcolepsy its very not clear which mean the exact cause of narcolepsy is not known but through the past decade, scientists have made important progress in perceptive it is pathogenesis and in identifying genes strongly related by the disorder. Scientists have also discovered abnormalities in various parts of the brain involved in regulating REM sleep that appear to contribute to symptom development. To be a condition where normal elements of sleep specifically elements of REM or dream sleep suddenly occur during a persons wakeful state it is appears in narcolepsy. The latest discovery has been the discovery of abnormalities in function and structure of a particular group of nerve cells and it called hypocretin neurons, in the brain who sufferer of narcolepsy. Location of those cells is in the part of brain called hypothalamus and they normally secrete neurotransmitter substances ( chemicals released by nerve cells to transmit messages to other cells ) and it called hypo cretins. Hypocretin is an important chemical in your brain and people with narcolepsy will have low levels of this neurochemical in their spinal fluid and it is for the most part low in those who experience cataplexy. You may suddenly enter into Rapid Eye Movement sleep without first experiencing in non Rapid Eye Movement both at a day and during at night. Some of the characteristic of Rapid Eye Movement sleep, such as sleep paralysis, vivid dreams and sudden lack of muscle tone, will occur during other sleep stages in people with narcolepsy. Other factor appears to play important roles in the development of narcolepsy. Some cases are known to result from shocking injuries to parts of the brain involved in Rapid Eye Movement sleep or for tumor growth or other disease processes in the same region. Dietary factors, infections, exposure to toxins, hormonal changes such as menopause or puberty, and alterations in a persons sleep schedule are just a few of the many factors that may make use of direct or indirect effects on the brain, thus possibly contributing to disease development. The role of heredity in humans who suffer from narcolepsy isnt completely understood. So far no steady pattern of heredity has been known in families. It is expected that relatives of sufferer with narcolepsy may have a higher tendency to develop narcolepsy or sleep associated abnormalities, such as increased Rapid Eye Movement and increased daytime sleepiness. Narcolepsy tends to start in adolescence and the symptoms are often mistakenly put down to behavior associated with this stage in life. There are many symptoms of narcolepsy are cataplexy, hallucinations, excessive daytime sleepiness, sleep paralysis but the main symptom is excessive daytime sleepiness or EDS in a short form. Excessive daytime sleepiness become the main symptom is because suffer from narcolepsy is tend to fall asleep easily. This can happen in many times and without warning and they have difficulty maintaining their concentration. The patient of narcolepsy may sleep for a few minutes or nearly hour or might feeling refreshed but eventually will fall asleep again. Excessive daytime sleepiness is present throughout the day and the sufferer with extreme effort might be able to refuse the sleepiness for some time. Finally it becomes irresistible and results in a sleep episode in a varied duration. Cataplexy is suddenly a loss voluntary muscle control and loss of muscles tone that leads to feeling weakness. That muscle weakness can be quite slight and sufferer is conscious but unable to speak. Severe attacks of cataplexy may results in a complete body collapse with a fall to the ground and risk of being injury. Even though cataplexy can occur spontaneously, it is more often triggered by sudden, strong emotion such as stress, excitement, anger, humor or fear. Hallucination that occurs when falling rapidly into Rapid Eye Movement sleep called hypnagogic hallucination. Experiencing the dreams as a reality, and may be particularly frightening and vivid. The condition when people with narcolepsy temporary have inability to move or speak while falling asleep or waking is called sleep paralysis. This natural inhibition usually goes to unnoticed by people who experience normal sleep because it occurs only when they are fully asleep and into Rapid Eye Movement stage at appropriate time in the cycle. This symptom is not only for those who have narcolepsy especially when young adulthood. On the other hand, narcolepsy also have additional symptom such as automatic behavior and disturbed nocturnal sleep. Automatic behavior occurs when people carry out certain action without awareness and this happen when the sufferer is changeable between wakefulness and sleep. Disturbed nocturnal sleep is along with excessive daytime sleepiness and the Rapid Eye Movement is related with abnormalities and it called narcolepsy pentad. Doctor may make an introduction diagnosis of narcolepsy based on excessive daytime sleepiness and cataplexy. After a preliminary diagnosis doctor refer to a sleep specialist for further information. Methods of determining and diagnosing of narcolepsy is divided into severity include: sleep records, sleep history, multiple sleep latency test, polysomnogram. Sleep records is known as a sleep pattern, the doctor will ask to keep an every single report of a sleep pattern for a week or two week and doctor can comparing how alertness and sleep pattern are related to each other. In addition, doctor will asked the patient for a detail sleep history, which is in each part of history, involves filling out the Epworth Sleepiness Scale and use a short questions to estimate your degree of sleepiness. For example, the patient indicates on a numbered scale how likely it is that you would doze off in certain situations, such as sitting down after eat. Multiple sleep latency test will measures how lo ng it takes to fall asleep during the day. Polysomnogram measures a variety of signal during sleep using electrodes places on your scalp. Another test that is recommended is hypocretin test, which is to detect the levels of hypocretin in the fluid that surrounded spinal cord. People who have narcolepsy usually will have a lower level of this brain chemical that regulates Rapid Eye Movement sleep. So far many doctors or researches havent found the way or any drugs to treats narcolepsy. Even there is no way narcolepsy to be cured but there is have a drug and behavioral therapies that have been proven to treat excessive daytime sleepiness and cataplexy such as medication and lifestyle modification that can help for manage the symptom. Medication for narcolepsy includes norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors or selective serotonin, stimulants, sodium oxybate, and tricylic antidepressant. Stimulants is kind drugs that is for stimulate central nervous system which is primary treatment to help the patient stay awake during the day. Tricylic antidepressant is also help people to treat narcolepsy but these drugs is older treatment and many people complaint about it because it may give side effects, such as constipation and dry mouth. Sodium oxybate helps people to improve nighttime sleep, which is often poor in narcolepsy. These drugs also may give serious side effects, such as bed wettin g, worsening of sleep walking and nausea. If the patient takes a high dose of these drugs it will lead the patient to difficulty of breathing, coma and even death. Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors or selective serotonin is to help alleviate the symptom of cataplexy, sleep paralysis and hypnagogic hallucinations. Narcolepsy is kind a sleep disorder who may give sufferer a very bad effects, such as damaging of brain, mentally or even in social life. Sufferer of narcolepsy cant control when they are supposed to fall asleep. They can fall asleep many times during a day. Narcolepsy can affect the person who suffering from it to future life, for example can affect relationship, education or career prospect. The person who suffering from narcolepsy may not be able to do a lot of things or even that person cant be able to socializing because some people will get irritated of that disorder. Consequently, people with narcolepsy often also have low self esteem and depression. Because, there is no way to cure narcolepsy but there have some drugs and another way to avoid cataplexy and excessive daytime sleepiness. Case Study Sleepy Genes Jason was a good student throughout grade school and middle school. However, when he began high school, he started to have odd symptoms that made his academic performance plummet. He was unable to stay awake during class, even when he had gotten plenty of sleep the night before. Even worse were the periods of paralysis called cataplexy. If he was startled by a slamming locker door, he might collapse and be unable to move for a few minutes. In his freshman year he broke three pairs of glasses as a result of these bouts of cataplexy. The diagnosis finally came when Jason was a junior in high school. Along with about 200,000 other Americans, Jason suffers from a disorder of the central nervous system called narcolepsy. Learning the name of his disease didnt cure Jason, but it has helped him to manage the symptoms. For example, he now takes amphetamines to keep himself awake during his normal daily activities. Even with these stimulants, he still needs to nap throughout the day, which he can manage by carefully organizing his schedule. Antidepressants seem to help prevent the embarrassing and often dangerous instances of cataplexy. Jason and the thousands of other narcoleptics share their plight with several colonies of dogs that are being studied at Stanford University. The excitement of getting a doggie biscuit can trigger cataplexy in these narcoleptic Daschunds, Dobermans, or Labrador retrievers. They regain muscle control a short time later, apparently none the worse for undergoing the uncontrollable collapse. In August 1999 the Stanford researchers reported the culmination of 36 years of study on these animals: They had discovered a gene that is defective in some of their narcoleptic dogs. The hope is that this information may help in developing new treatments for sleep disorders such as narcolepsy. How can scientists find genes? To answer this question, we must first go back in time about 140 years to a monastery garden in what is now the Czech Republic, where the science of genetics was born. Case Study Revisited: Sleepy Genes Following in the footsteps of Gregor Mendel, researchers at the Stanford Center for Narcolepsy crossed narcoleptic dogs to one another and analyzed the progeny. This analysis showed that narcolepsy in dogs results from a recessive allele of a single gene. But where is this gene and what kind of protein does it encode? Further studies by Dr. Mignots research group revealed that the narcolepsy gene is on chromosome 12. After years of effort, they were eventually able to clone the gene-only to find that it had already been discovered! The gene is called Hcrt2, and it encodes a protein receptor that is present on the cell surfaces of some cells in the hypothalamus (a part of the brain). The protein encoded by Hcrt2 binds to signaling molecules called hypocretins. In the narcoleptic dogs the receptor was defective, making their brain cells ignore the molecular signal delivered by the hypocretins. Narcoleptic mice, studied by another research group, appear to have normal Hcrt2 genes, but t hey have a different mutation that prevents them from producing hypocretins at all. In a most interesting turn of events, hypocretins (also called orexins) had been under investigation because of their role in controlling feeding behavior. Thus, the molecular systems that control sleep and feeding may have some common features. What about the human connection? In January 2000 Mignots research group and their collaborators reported that seven out of nine patients with narcolepsy did not produce hypocretin. These individuals may have a genetic defect similar to that of the narcoleptic mice. Two of the nine narcoleptic humans did produce hypocretins. These individuals may have a mutation in the hypocretin receptor gene similar to that in the narcoleptic dogs. Intense investigation is under way to use this information to develop treatments for patients with narcolepsy. This knowledge might also allow scientists to develop better medicines to promote sleep in people suffering from insomnia. Because genetics is important to so many aspects of human behavior, defense attorneys might consider using a defendants genetic constitution as a strategy to excuse criminal behavior. First, take the side of the defense and present an argument about why a defendants genes should be considered as a factor in the criminal behavior. Then take the prosecutions side and present an argument about why a defendants genes do not excuse criminal behavior. SUMMARY Narcolepsy tends to start in adolescence and Jacob experienced this disorder when he was started in high school. He was a good student throughout primary school and junior school. In high school he started with the odd symptom of narcolepsy such as he was not be able to stay awake during his class even though he had gotten plenty of sleep the night before. Even worse were the periods of cataplexy. If he was startled by slamming locker door, he might collapse and not be able to move for a few minutes. Finally the diagnosis comes out and he was positively got narcolepsy disease. He tried to do the treatment but it didnt cure him from narcolepsy. Jacob just takes some stimulants to keep him stay awake during his normal daily life, it was helped him to manage the symptom. Although, he takes these stimulants he still need a nap throughout his day.

Essay --

Hamlet is a classic example of a story that has a tragic effect. In order for a story to have this effect it must have a tragic hero that receives sympathy from the audience members. To be a tragic hero a character must possess good characteristics: bravery and loyalty, but they also can possess a bad one like pride. In the play Hamlet, Hamlet became the tragic hero after his father is killed. His father, King Hamlet, is killed by his brother Claudius so that he could inherit the throne and everything that came with the kingdom of Denmark. After his father’s death, Hamlet avenges his father’s death by trying to kill Claudius. Hamlet is the tragic hero because he is brave and loyal, but he could not move past his father’s death quick enough which ultimately play a key role in his death. The audience feels sympathy for the predicament that hamlet is in which makes him the perfect tragic hero of the play Hamlet. At the beginning of the play Hamlet is going through a hard time in his life. His father just died, and his mother just married his uncle less than two months later. Hamlet’s ...

High School and Extracurricular School Food Essay

This brief addresses â€Å"open† or â€Å"off † campus policies that allow high school students to go off campus to purchase and eat food during their lunch periods. The brief highlights issues related to open campus policies and complements the separate Legal Notes: Open Campus Lunch, which highlights some of the legal issues related to off campus lunch and the creation of effective policy addressing this matter. OPEN CAMPUS LUNCH POLICY DECISIONMAKERS Copies of Legal Notes: Open Campus Lunch, Mapping School Food, and other related materials are available on the Public Health Advocacy Institute website at: www.phaionline. org/schoolfood. For more on Potter Boxes, please review Mapping School Food. A quick primer, Potter Boxes at a Glance, is also provided near the end of this brief. This issue brief and the legal notes will help you craft your own Potter Box—a decision-making matrix—that provides a legal and social framework and helps identify key legal access points directed towards reaching your policy goal. This brief defines an open or off campus policy as one that allows select or all students to leave campus during the lunch period to purchase or consume food and beverages. Therefore, a school with a â€Å"modified† policy that only allows certain students who meet specified requirements to go off campus is considered to have an open campus policy. This brief defines a closed campus policy as one that does not allow any students to leave campus during lunch or any other time during the school day. The focus of this brief is on high schools, although research and data that extend to elementary and middle school students were evaluated in preparation of this brief. Open and closed campus policies can be set at the state level by a state board of education or by the state’s education code. Typically, policies are set at the district level by the school district board. The district can create base guidelines establishing an open campus, but it can additionally allow the principal at each school the authority to make provisions or decide under certain circumstances whether or not to allow off campus privileges. In California, for instance, the Stockton Unified School District board policy makes detailed provisions for open campuses but gives the school principal the power to completely close campus if there are specific reasons to do so. In addition to board members, the superintendent is a key decision-maker because he or she must implement the board’s policies. Off campus policies can also be set at the school level by the principal. See legal notes, School Structure, Power, and Responsibility: From State Laws to High School Handbooks, for additional information. Open campus lunch laws and policies do not exist in a vacuum. Policy goals, community support, and specific situational facts must be taken into consideration or the law or policy can be rendered useless, harmful, or ignored. OPEN AND CLOSED CAMPUSES BY THE NUMBERS High schools tend to have unhealthier school food environments than elementary schools. Open and closed school campus policies have the potential to affect students’ health, safety, and security, as well as to influence the school environment itself in these 1 Open Campus Lunch Off the Map: Extracurricular School Food areas. The 2006 School Health Policies and Programs Study showed that nationwide 71. 1 percent of high school districts and 73. 1 percent of high schools had a closed campus policy where students could not leave campus during lunch or at any other time during the school day (compared with 65. 9 and 73. 4 percent, respectively, in 2000). This is similar to a finding of about 25 percent of high schools having open campuses obtained in spring 2005 by the third School Nutrition Dietary Assessment Study (SNDA-III). Percentages can vary by state and study. A 2003 survey of California high schools found that 46 percent had open campuses, the same as it found in its 2000 survey. We conducted a small, informal survey with people who provided input for Mapping School Food and who impact the school food environment in Arkansas, California, Massachusetts, and Mississippi. We also reviewed notes from interviews conducted in 2007 in preparation for Mapping School Food. The results of the survey are anecdotal evidence to enhance this brief and cannot be generalized. A little under one fifth of those surveyed stated that the school or district they worked with had an open campus policy. Some did not have open campuses because they worked primarily with younger students not yet in high school. There is a strong link between a student’s dietary behavior and his or her risk of becoming overweight. Students should eat less low-nutrient, energy-dense foods and beverages and more fruits, vegetables, and low- or no-fat milk. A study of Minnesota secondary school students found a strong link between frequency of eating fast food and â€Å"poorer food choices,† resulting in more fatty and sugary foods—and less fruits, vegetables, and milk—consumed. Most of those we surveyed felt that food and beverages obtained through concession stands, fundraisers, school stores, and off campus lunch periods were unhealthy, and over half believed that students would purchase healthier foods if they were available. They thought that most of their students who bought food and beverages near campus did so at chain fast food establishments and minimarts with prepared foods. Depending on what is offered in the cafeteria and school, closing the campus for lunch could eliminate the fast food option and help strengthen good food choices. Foods subsidized by federal programs must comply with certain nutrition regulations and generally are called program foods, while all other school food generally can be considered non-program or competitive foods. For more information, see Mapping School Food, particularly Appendix: Federal School Meal Programs and its Legal Practitioner’s Point. The United States Department of Agriculture’s SNDA-III found that students who participated in  the National School Lunch Program (NSLP) were more likely to consume fruits, vegetables, and milk. Correspondingly, non-participants were more likely to consume snacks, desserts, and beverages like sodas during the lunch period. Policy changes that restricted non-program foods, meaning food obtained through school stores, snack bars, and a la carte options, resulted in a reduction of sugar-sweetened beverages consumed by middle and high school youth. Closed high school campuses also were linked to an increase in eating vegetables. However, these initial analyses from the dataset collected during the 2004–2005 scholastic year must be taken into consideration with one finding of no strong association between school food policies and high school students’ obesity risk. Continued research into this rich data set is necessary to clarify and further inform these analyses. Policymakers should explore if closing campuses for lunch will improve healthier choices and eating habits. The 2003 California High School Fast Food â€Å"The food environment surrounding schools could easily negate school food policies and health education in the classroom, especially in high schools with an open campus policy that allows students to leave campus during their lunch break. † STURM (2008) STUDENT HEALTH, NUTRITION, EATING PATTERNS, AND SCHOOL FOOD The school environment is an important sphere in the development of dietary behavior. Policymakers should craft school food laws or rules that encourage healthier options while restricting unhealthier options. They also should assess open campus lunch policies because these policies can affect policy goals regarding the school food environment. 2 Open Campus Lunch Off the Map: Extracurricular School Food Survey found indications that schools with an open campus lunch policy reported less participation in the NSLP compared to schools with closed campus policies. The SNDA-III reported that 14 percent of high school students who were interviewed about what they ate on a certain day reported that they did not participate in the NSLP because they went off campus to eat lunch. Thus, there is the possibility that closed campus policies could encourage increased NSLP participation and healthier eating habits. Open and closed campus lunch policies must be examined further in the context of their relationship to school food and student health. There is also a perception issue that demands attention. Regarding open campus lunch policies, one Massachusetts Food Service Director commented, â€Å"It sends the message that school food is not as good as fast food and also there are a great deal of safety issues involved with leaving and returning. † Some students may perceive a certain stigma with regard to cafeteria food—particularly program foods—which must be corrected. CLUSTERING OF FAST FOOD ESTABLISHMENTS, RACIAL AND SOCIOECONOMIC DISPARITIES food or other establishments clustering around the school should evaluated. School policy must also consider student subgroups that could be disparately impacted by the clustering of fast food establishments and/or the adverse health effects of overweight. Studies show that fast food restaurants cluster within easy walking distance around schools. A recent study of middle and high schools in California found a direct relationship between fast food establishments being near those schools and the students being overweight. It also found that students within walking distance of fast food restaurants were significantly less likely to say they had eaten fruits or vegetables and more likely to have consumed soda. The study did find a larger association of overweight being associated with fast food proximity for Black students which it did not find with other racial and ethnic minority student populations. It also found the same increased association for students in urban schools. Overweight is a health indicator displaying significant disparities amongst racial and ethnic minority youth, as certain groups have higher risks of obesity and resultant health problems compared with others. Studies also have indicated that low-income and racial minority students can tend to live in communities with less safe streets, poorer facilities, and/or greater access to low-nutrient, energy-dense foods and less access to healthy foods. One study examined high and middle schools and their proximity to restaurants, convenience stores, snack stores, and liquor stores. Observing racial and socioeconomic variances, it found that Hispanic students are more likely to go to schools within close Open campus and other school policies should aid student development in all areas including nutrition and health. Fast food availability around schools encourages consumption of low-nutrient, energydense food and could influence students’ developing decision-making skills and habits regarding nutrition. When crafting school policy, the significance of fast â€Å"While it is important to respect adolescents’ increasing autonomy and decisionmaking skills, research clearly shows that food availability is one of the strongest correlates of food choices in adolescents. † NEUMARK – SZTAINER ET AL . (2005) In study results published in 2005, over a thousand, mostly suburban, high school students were surveyed across twenty high schools in a region in Minnesota. At least six of the high schools had an open campus policy. The study found that students on an open campus were â€Å"significantly more likely† to get their lunches from fast food establishments and convenience stores. It also found that students in upper grade levels purchased lunch from convenience stores or fast food restaurants with greater frequency than students in lower grade levels. The study concluded that school food policies that limit access to low-nutrient, energy-dense foods and beverages are linked with students purchasing these types of food and beverages less frequently. 3 Open Campus Lunch Off the Map: Extracurricular School Food walking distance of those types of establishments. That particular study did not find such strong associations among other racial groups, except with regard to liquor stores. Another study published in early 2009 found that fast food restaurants in New York were concentrated in commercial areas and in predominantly Black communities in both low-income and more affluent areas. More data and studies are needed to clarify the relationship between different establishments’ proximity to schools and student eating patterns—and how racial, ethnic, socioeconomic, and other factors are related to fast food establishment clustering, overweight, and health risks. Still, these factors newly have been considered in local land use law, and they should be considered when crafting current school policy. In Los Angeles, an ordinance recently passed that puts a one year moratorium on building new fast food establishments in areas of South Los Angeles, which have large Latino and Black communities. The ordinance was significantly motivated by the city council’s concerns about how the proliferation of fast food restaurants escalate socioeconomic problems in low-income neighborhoods—and this proliferation’s impact on food security and children’s health and nutrition. Hopefully, the moratorium will provide time for more permanent regulatory controls to be put in place. See legal notes, Legal Interventions—Holistic Considerations, for additional information. LOCAL BUSINESSES AND ENVIRONMENT go off campus for lunch, said that local businesses donate money to the school, and a closed campus policy would likely cause the loss of those donations. However, in our informal survey, the few people that did work with schools that received donations from local businesses that sell food or beverages did not feel that those donations were a necessary part of the school’s overall budget. When constructing your Potter Box, the facts of the situation will clarify specific concerns, such as local establishments’ reliance on youths’ lunch money and whether these businesses donate or contribute to the high school(s) to an extent that it could impact policy decisions. Local businesses therefore can be attuned to the school’s schedule and policies. â€Å"We always know when kids aren’t going to be in school,† a pizza manager told a newspaper. â€Å"When kids are home from school they’re ordering pizzas, so we schedule another driver. † Local businesses also may contribute to the schools in non-monetary ways like monitoring and reporting student behavior. Antioch Unified School District in California is starting a â€Å"We Tip† program where local businesses are encouraged to report truancy. Improved average daily attendance results in more monetary support from the government. Programs like â€Å"We Tip† have to be measured against closed campus policies to see which is—or if both applied together are—more effective and beneficial to the school. Most of those we surveyed who had experience with off campus policies felt that such policies were popular with local businesses and students and, conversely, not popular at all with cafeteria staff and food service directors. They also thought their location and community could not accommodate an open campus lunch policy. The outflow of students during the lunch period may cause problems or potential hazards in the local area. Residents may be worried about students bringing large groups of their peers and congregating in homes or complexes. Schools in rural areas may not have businesses nearby. Off campus lunch can be viewed as a valuable revenue stream for local businesses. One â€Å"highly profitable† fast food location up for sale advertised in 2007 as a factor in its value that it is located next to â€Å"a high school which allows off campus lunch time to their students. † These businesses may in turn make donations or otherwise support the school. The school’s perception of the value of these local business donations could conflict with instituting healthier school food initiatives. A principal from Modoc County, California, who estimated that 80 percent of students 4 Open Campus Lunch. Off the Map: Extracurricular School Food SAFETY ISSUES, TIME, AND CAR ACCIDENTS Safety issues also factor into determining open and closed campus policy. One Californian who works in nutritional education emphasized that safety issues were concerns â€Å"especially at the high school where there is an open campus. † Newspapers report incidents like fighting, fatal car accidents, mugging, substance abuse and arrest, and sexual assault as occurring off campus during lunch periods. Although these incident rates may be relatively small, each incident can have a significant impact on the school and its students. Time is a considerable factor in evaluating a policy’s safety and feasibility. The lunch period may be too short for students to reasonably go off campus for lunch. An overwhelming number of those we surveyed thought that there was not enough time for students to go off campus, buy and eat lunch, and return on time. Some of those surveyed reported having as little as twenty minutes allotted for lunch, and a student article, discussed below in Student Input and Support, averaged a 37 minute high school lunch period. Schools with open campus policies should monitor whether or not the policy affects afternoon tardiness or truancy. Also, time issues may encourage unhealthier eating off campus. One Virginia public high school has an â€Å"Off-Site Lunch Contract Senior Privilege Form† as part of its off campus lunch driver permit. The contract stresses that this is a privilege, limited to seniors and extended lunch days. It requires students not to travel alone, sets area restrictions, and states, â€Å"There is plenty of variety in fast food establishments within the boundaries provided. Students should choose establishments that can serve within five to ten minutes of your arrival. You should allow at minimum 15 minutes of driving/parking time. † In granting the privilege to go off campus for lunch, the school policy seems to encourage students to eat fast food in order for the policy to operate smoothly and for students to return on time. Traffic accidents are a major concern for many high schools. Student drivers add to lunchtime traffic congestion, and students driving to pick up lunch may rush back to class. A study of three North Carolina counties over four years found that there was a â€Å"significantly higher† rate of risk for car accidents during open campus lunch periods compared to any other time of the day and compared to a county with closed campus lunch. There were also more passengers in the cars during lunch period accidents. Safety concerns and student fatalities during lunch periods have resulted in the proposal of two New York State assembly bills designed to regulate off campus policy. Student injuries and death that occurred while the students were off campus during the lunch period also have resulted in lawsuits being brought against school districts and officials. See legal notes, Open Campus Lunch Tort Concerns and School Structure, Power, and Responsibility: From State Laws to High School Handbooks, for more information. CAFETERIA AND CAMPUS CONCERNS— ADEQUATE TIME, FACILITIES, SUPERVISION, AND BUDGET Closing an open campus may give high schools the ability to refocus school food issues like cafeteria breakfast, lunch, vendors, and water fountains. One Arkansas School District Nurse commented, â€Å"My districts do not want anything on campus that competes with the federal lunch program. † A closed campus could assist in a comprehensive approach to improving school food and offering healthy food choices on campus. What are the practical considerations when closing an open campus? About half of those surveyed who had experience with open campus lunch policies thought their school or district, as it stood, could provide lunch to all its students. A few specifically suggested that schools would need to improve food options in cafeterias, extend the lunch periods, and expand and renovate facilities for food preparation. A school or district deciding to close a campus for lunch needs to ensure the necessary resources are in place before the policy is implemented. 5 Open Campus Lunch Off the Map: Extracurricular School Food. The high school or district needs to determine whether the cafeteria and campus can adequately handle a closed campus. For example: What kinds of burden will the additional students who used to go off campus for lunch put on the cafeteria? Factors include: Time. Adequate time to eat lunch is a concern in the cafeteria just as much as it is off campus. One California food services staff exclaimed, â€Å"30 minutes to serve 3,000! † Some cafeterias have to stagger their lunch periods, with students eating lunch anywhere from 10:30 a. m. to 2:00 p. m. The 2006 School Health Policies and Programs Study found students on average have 22. 8 minutes to eat lunch once seated. It also found an increase in school districts that required a â€Å"minimum seating time† for eating lunch once seated. Facilities. This includes cafeteria space, kitchen and food production capacity, etc. The school might want to consider renovations that would help accommodate more and even healthier food options or improve the flow of students getting their food. Facilities also include fences and other structures that may be necessary to control a closed campus. A California principal anticipated, â€Å"All 1,200 students eat at the same time and it would be a nightmare to serve all of these students with the current setup. † A California Nutrition Educationalist stated, â€Å"Closing the campus at the high school has been discussed numerous times in the past with the results always being that it would be too difficult to close campus and we are lacking in facilities to accommodate the students. † Supervision. School officials have a duty to supervise the students on campus. When deciding whether to close a campus, it should be deter-mined whether there are enough resources and staff to adequately supervise the students during the lunch period. Also, can students leaving and entering the campus be adequately supervised? Budget. Foreseeable costs incurred by staff or facilities changes need to be supported by already overextended school budgets. Among the school food decision-makers we informally surveyed, the top two concerns to their district or school were the school budget and the school food budget. This could be a potential barrier to closing a campus. However, closing a school’s campus could be seen as an investment in student health, safety, and perhaps monetary return. Most of those we surveyed with open campus lunch policy experience thought that a closed campus would increase cafeteria profit, and none of them thought it would decrease profit. Specific research may be needed for an advocate to determine whether and by how much a closed campus policy could increase cafeteria revenues. Potential impact on student health should also be evaluated. For example: How will closing campus affect students’ eating patterns both on campus and outside of school? What are the choices on a closed campus and how healthy are they? What changes can be made to offer a variety of healthier, appealing food choices? One high school in Missouri was able to close its campus after it moved into a newly built structure that could accommodate serving food to all the students and staff. Yet closing a campus for lunch does not necessarily keep fast food away, as the food services supervisor contemplated using vendors such as Pizza Hut and Quiznos—in part because â€Å"it helps out the community merchants. † â€Å"Our food service program operates in the black now, whereas it never did before,† said Kevin Ivers, Bridgman’s superintendent, noting that the high school had added a second lunch period to reduce lines, and overhauled the menu to introduce quesadillas, yogurt, salads and fruit. â€Å"That enables us to put more money into the classrooms. † NEW YORK TIMES ( MAY 2008) A 2008 New York Times article noted that school districts in New York and nationwide were instituting closed campus lunch policies due to car accident-related deaths, injury, and truancy. The Times also anecdotally interviewed specific high schools where closing campuses for lunch had improved attendance for post-lunch classes, increased cafeteria sales by in some cases over 10 percent and 22 percent, and turned a food service program operating at a loss into a profitable one. However it also cited concerns that closed campus lunch policies were part of a trend in restricting youths and hindering their decision-making experiences. 6 Open Campus Lunch Off the Map: Extracurricular School Food STUDENT INPUT AND SUPPORT. Student input and support are critical to a successful closed campus lunch policy. School lunch is a popular topic for high school students. LA Youth, an online student journal that reaches half a million Los Angeles County youth, published an informal survey a few years ago where student reporters found out â€Å"What’s for Lunch? † in their high schools. Examining twenty four public and private high schools in Southern California, it found that lunch on average lasts thirtyseven minutes. About two thirds of schools had vendors in cafeterias or push carts, and most schools had open campus policies for seniors. Only about four schools had a fully closed campus. The survey also noted types of vendors (Subway, Pizza Hut, and Dominos being the most common), cafeteria menus (Mexican food and sandwiches being popular), and cafeteria food prices. Many students may balk at a closed campus policy, seeing it as restricting their freedom and taking away a reward for good grades, attendance, or other open campus policy requirements. A Californian nursing manager described the toughest obstacles to changing open campus policy as the â€Å"objections of community stores and restaurants and student protests. † Students may be more likely to advocate for open campus policies. After two high school students approached the School Committee, a Massachusetts high school started an off campus pilot program open to only seniors in good standing. At the time, key issues or concerns with the program were safety, student initiative/input, incentives for students to improve grades and behavior, monetary impact on school food, student nutrition, â€Å"rewarding children with junk food,† and potentially teaching responsibility and time management. While the pilot program and these issues were being discussed in 2004, the high school currently allows seniors who meet certain requirements off campus lunch privileges. Other students have opened up online forums such as MySpace message boards to discuss and protest their school’s attempts to close their campus for lunch. An advocate seeking to change a high school or district’s off campus lunch policy may consider surveying or interviewing students to find out what is important to them so as to determine potential sources of student support. These tools also could be useful in  finding what influences students’ food and beverage choices—such as cost, certain tastes, convenience— in order to make healthy choices in school food more appealing. Another LA Youth article discussed a student having informal weekly potlucks with friends that focused on â€Å"food adventure† and not on eating healthier foods. This could nonetheless spark ideas and discussions about using similar methods to promote healthier eating programs and deciding what types of equipment could be helpful, such as microwaves and secured refrigerators. Other student newspapers have covered open campus policies. One student reporter, who found that fifteen out of twenty students surveyed ate daily at Jack in the Box, Wendy’s, or McDonald’s, recommended that her high school â€Å"ban off-campus lunch, and improve the food in our school cafeteria. † Most of those we surveyed were involved with schools that had nutrition education programs. Perhaps encouraging student-led nutritional education projects to supplement or strengthen existing nutrition education programs could lead to some innovative ideas, positive results, and student support for policies like closed campus lunch. LACK OF ENFORCEMENT AND LEADERSHIP The number one obstacle to implementing the type of food program desired by those surveyed was lack of enforcement of school food policies. The next two obstacles were lack of resources and time constraints in the budget’s timeline. One person surveyed recommended to â€Å"put in policies a way of enforcing any regulations that are mandated. † Another who worked in food service in California suggested â€Å"tougher penalties. † A community health nurse specialist in Arkansas pointed to the relationship between leadership and enforcement: â€Å"Leadership in schools has to enforce the school’s policies or the policy is ineffective. † A food service director in Massachusetts stated, â€Å"Lack of funding has resulted in lack of good leadership for the district. Policies on safety, wellness, etc. , have taken a back seat to teacher loss and budget cuts. With our school budget in a deficit and no town support for an over-ride, my personal feeling is we will keep losing students to school choice and private schools. † For legal analysis on building enforcement and accountability into school policy, see legal notes, Enforcement Issues and Possible Enforcement Mechanisms. 7 Open Campus Lunch Off the Map: Extracurricular School Food. OTHER POLICY CHANGE CONCERNS Sources describe open campus lunch for students as a â€Å"privilege. † Policymakers and advocates should stress that off campus lunch is not a right or requirement. If the policy has academic achievement, attendance, and/or other requirements, this policy is also characterized as a reward for students. Advocates may want to consider suggesting alternate rewards. While wellness policies generally do not address off campus lunch policies, perhaps the two should be integrated in order to frame the off campus issue as one of student health. One superintendent told a newspaper that it was â€Å"hard for one campus to have one rule and another campus to have another. ‘We don’t want advantages or disadvantages to going one way or the other. ’† Students also have stated that it was unfair if their campus was closed and neighboring high school students could go off campus for lunch. Perhaps consider a comprehensive district ban. Tradition or culture may be obstacles to changing the policy. As a food service director from Massachusetts noted, â€Å"Change is never easy. We do not have off campus lunch. However, I worked in a school that did previously and it was very difficult to change even though it was discussed every year! † YOUR NEXT STEPS To help you with your next steps, this issue brief provides factors that will help you construct your own Potter Box about off campus lunch policy. Hopefully, this brief, the accompanying legal piece, and Mapping School Food will provide you with a strong foundation upon which to construct policy that fulfills your own goals. A blank Potter Box for you to fill out is provided on page 12 of Mapping School Food, or you can make your own. You may also want to consult the Model Decision-Maker Potter Box on page 13 and the other filled-in Potter Boxes in Mapping School Food. POTTER BOXES AT A GLANCE BOX 2 Values and Tools BOX 1 Excerpts from Mapping School Food: The Potter Box is a four-part square that can help you make informed decisions. While the Potter Box cannot make a decision for you, it can help clarify your options and why you would choose one option over another. We have adapted the Potter Box to help you clarify the interactions between the many factors that affect school food decisions and critique the different factors that affect your own decision making. This modified version of the Potter Box can†¦help you understand the law and to identify key decision-makers. It also demonstrates how the law plays out in real-world situations and the assumptions and concerns that various decision-makers bring to bear on school food policy. Facts List all the facts known about the situation or problem. List the factors that drive your school food decisions. What are the elements that you need to consider when making decisions? What tools do you typically use? How are the solutions to the problem evaluated?